Bibliography TEXTBOOKS
1) Scott, Richard. Organizations; Rational, Natural, and Open Systems ThirdEdition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1992.
Contemporary social life is consumed with the presence of organizations. This book seeks to expose both the practical and theoretical benefits that might be learned through an examination of organizations. This examination will consist in part of studying the commonalities and diversities that organizations share. As the title of his book indicates, Richard Scott will examine three mutually exclusive organizational systems; Rational, Natural, and Open . Scott's justification for examining these three approaches is premised on the notion that social structures of modern society consist not merely of "natural persons," but must recognize the relations between the "corporate persons" as well. In an attempt to understand these multilateral relationships many have devised "distinctive structural arrangements" that are conducive to such relationships.
Select Here to Find This Book Select Here to Find This Book
HOME PAGE RATIONAL THEORY NATURAL THEORY OPEN THEORY
2) Morgan, Gareth. Images of Organizations. London: Sage Publications, 1986.
This book explores and develops the art of reading and understanding organizations. Morgan skillfully uses the tool of metaphor as a means of analyzing organizational operations and structures. By effectively utilizing various metaphors, Morgan allows the reader to draw upon the similarities that may exist between the readers world and the world of organizational theory. These metaphors range from viewing organizations as "machines," detailing the similarities between bureaucratically styled organizations and that of a finely tuned machine, to comparing the decision processing functions of an organization and those same capacities of the human brain. Comprehension of these distinct relationships will provide managers and administrators with a means of managing various organizational situations.
Select Here to Find This Book Select Here to Find This Book
HOME PAGE RATIONAL THEORY NATURAL THEORY OPEN THEORY RATIONAL SYSTEM THEORISTS
1) Weber, Max. The Theory of Social and Economic Organizations. Illinois: The Fallcon's Wing Press, 1947.
This is a comprehensive examination of Weber's "sociological theory." It includes essays on the methodological foundation of his empirical and theoretical works and examines the "ideal types" of social action and relationships. This particular book was intended to be an introduction to a much larger historical study of the modern social and economic order, but Weber's death precluded such an ambitious project. Particularly important to administrator's is the chapter of the book entitled "The Fundamental Concepts of Sociology."
In this portion of the book Weber articulates a concept of "Corporate Groups." These groups are communal or associative in character, and contain a person or a group of persons who will assume the role of authority. Their primary duty is that of enforcing the order governing the corporate group. Moreover, the members of this corporate group are subject to the legitimate exercise of imperative control by virtue of their membership. Unlike other theorists, Weber does not describe the motivations that lead individuals to join these corporate groups. He makes some mention of of what might motivate the administrative staff, i.e. loyalty to service, traditional or effectual devotion to duty, or salary. However he hardly mentions the importance of the line worker. It is important to point-out that the existence of these corporate groups is entirely contingent on the presence of a person in authority.
Select Here to Find This Book Select Here to Find This Book
HOME PAGE RATIONAL THEORY NATURAL THEORY OPEN THEORY
2) Simon, Herbert. Administrative Behavior: A study of Decision-Making Process in Administrative Organizations. 3rd ed. New York: Collier Macmillan Publishers, 1976.
In this book Herbert Simon embarks on a critical examination of classical organizational theory. He concludes that the best organizational design is one that balances competing and conflicting design considerations. Although classical organizational theory serves a valuable purpose, experts today have a clearer understanding of the limitations and shortcomings of traditional principles. Simon uses examples from both the private sector and the public sector to expose how attention to the decision making and communication process can lead to a viable organizational design.
As is evident by the title, the key to understanding any organization phenomena is to closely examine the decision-making process of that organization. Simon pays particular attention to the individuals ability or inability to make "rational" decisions. He contends that human rationality is bounded as a result of the inability of the human mind to "...bring to bear upon a single decision all the aspects of value, knowledge, and behavior that would be relevant." Thus organizational designs must foster an environment which "imposes" a selection of choices from which the individuals decisions will be based.
Select Here to Find This Book Select Here to Find This Book
HOME PAGE RATIONAL THEORY NATURAL THEORY OPEN THEORY
3) Taylor, Frederick W., Scientific Management. New York:
Harper & Row, 1911.
This book explores the idea of scientific management as an approach to attaining organizational goals. Taylor prescribes a highly rationalized theory of management where individuals are observed performing various tasks. The results of these observations will be used to place individuals into task assignments most suited for their individual talents. This calculated placement will result in the organizations ability to produce the optimum level of output from the minimum level of input. Taylor believed strongly that this rational system was far superior in structure than the traditional practices of arbitrary management.
Select Here to Find This Book Select Here to Find This Book
HOME PAGE RATIONAL THEORY NATURAL THEORY OPEN THEORY NATURAL SYSTEMS THEORISTS
1) Mayo, Elton. The Social Problems of an Industrialized Civilization. Boston: Harvard University, 1945.
This is a classic read for those who are interested in the notion of natural systems theory. Mayo is an advocate of the human relation school which is incorporated along with other theories into the natural system theory. This book details some of Mayo's organizational experiments including the infamous Hawthorne plant observations. It is with these experiments that Mayo in conjunction with others, establishes the notion that individuals are motivated not merely by economic incentive, but could be driven by socialized mechanisms the likes of teamwork and sustain cooperation with management. As evidence to this effect Mayo chronicles his study of fatigue on employees of a textile mill in Philadelphia. Among other important finding, he discovers that optimum productivity levels can be achieved when workers are permitted rest periods proportionate to the demands of the job. These rest intervals resulted in a decrease in worker turnover from 250% per annum to approximately 6% per annum. Simultaneously production increased by an average of nearly 10% a month.
Select Here to Find This Book Select Here to Find This Book
HOME PAGE RATIONAL THEORY NATURAL THEORY OPEN THEORY
2) McGregor, Douglas. The Human Side of Enterprise.
New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960.
This is an excellent read for those seeking an intelligent rebuttal to the rational systems approach. McGregor contends that the traditional principles of organizational theory i.e. hierarchical structure, authority, unity of command, task specialization, span of control, etc, are flawed. He argues quite convincingly that these "textbook" theories which focus primarily on authority as the central indispensable means of managerial control, are the result of "...armchair speculation rather than empirical research." It is his belief that traditional attempts to control behavior in an organizational setting are pursued in a manor that directly violates human nature. "One cannot expect people to act a certain way simply because one demands one to act in that way."
Managers must be cognizant of what it is that humans value, and design an organizational model that builds upon these values. In doing so organizations will wean themselves off of the counterproductive Theory X organizational model, and begin anew using a more effective Theory Y organizational model. The foundation of Theory Y is constructed from assumptions of human nature that recognizes that the expenditure of physical and mental effort in the workplace is as natural to people as play or rest. Humans do not by their nature loath work. Given the right organizational environment, they will depend on it as a means of manifesting self worth.
Select Here to Find This Book Select Here to Find This Book
HOME PAGE RATIONAL THEORY NATURAL THEORY OPEN THEORY
3) Barnard, Chester. The Function of the Executive. 30th anniversary ed. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1968.
The overriding intent of this book is to provide the reader with a comprehensive theory of cooperative behavior in formal organizations. In doing so, Barnard sets forth a detailed examination of the relationship that exist between the individual and organizations. He views this relationship as essentially a cooperative one that integrates the various talents of individuals. These individual contributions are then directed towards the attainment of some common purpose. It is this equilibrium between the achievement of organizational purpose and satisfaction of individual motives that propels the organizations chances of survival. The primary function of the executive then is to provide an effective system of communication, to facilitate and maintain a cooperative atmosphere, and to ensure "...the continuing integrity of organizational purpose." Although Barnard is considered a natural systems theorist, many of his ideas are consistent with rational organizational theory.
Select Here to Find This Book Select Here to Find This Book
HOME PAGE RATIONAL THEORY NATURAL THEORY OPEN THEORY OPEN SYSTEM THEORISTS
1) Katz, Daniel and Robert l. Kahn, The Social Psychology of Organizations . New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1966.
Daniel Katz and Robert Kahn explore the emergence of an alternative approach to organizational theory. They contend that past approaches to the study of social problems and behavior have been restricted to theories of psychology which could not account for adequate explorations of individual characteristics. The field of psychology for one reason or another had neglected to provide even a modicum of analysis regarding social structures and organizations. At the time this book was written, the concept of open-system theory had yet to be fully developed, but it began to emerge as a promising analytic model through which to examine organizations. In this context open system theory is defined as a framework through which one can examine the behavior of living organisms regardless of any dynamic, pattern, process, or sequence of events. It is a cyclical process that emphasizes the close relationship between a structure and its supporting environment.
Select Here to Find This Book Select Here to Find This Book
HOME PAGE RATIONAL THEORY NATURAL THEORY OPEN THEORY
2) Buckley, Walter. Sociology and Modern Systems Theory. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1967.
The purpose of this book is to provide some insight into the emergence of modern systems theory. Until this point, and most would argue still today, there is a long established predisposition towards organizing according to a mechanical model, and to a lesser degree an organic or organismic model. It is Buckely's contention that these models no longer contain an appropriate answer to the questions contain by the "social cultural realm." No one can deny the great strides taken by the physical sciences, and the obvious temptation to analogize those findings as answers to the perplexing questions of the social sphere. Nonetheless, Buckley uses cybernetics, information and communication theory, and the like to expose the "shallow similarities" that exist between biological and social spheres. This book provides a strong chronology of systems theory and details the transition from biological and physical scientific models, to the emergence of a social systems paradigm.
Select Here to Find This Book Select Here to Find This Book
HOME PAGE RATIONAL THEORY NATURAL THEORY OPEN THEORY
3) Galbraith, Jay. Designing Complex Organizations. London:
Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1973.
Galbraith provides the reader with a framework through which various organizational designs maybe examined. He effectively utilizes empirical data in his attempt to synthesize various organizational phenomena that in the past have been regarded as mutually exclusive. This synthesis manifests itself in the form of a "contingency theory" which can be described by two postulates; 1) There is no one best way to organize, and 2) Any way of organizing is not equally effective. Organizational design is contingent upon the information acquired during the execution of organizational tasks. Many empirical findings are discussed including the observation that uncertainty of ones task is related to the choice of appropriate organizational structure.
Select Here to Find This Book Select Here to Find This Book
HOME PAGE RATIONAL THEORY NATURAL THEORY OPEN THEORY
4) Jun, Jung S. and Mario A. Rivera. "The Paradox of Transforming Public Administration." American Behavioral Scientist. 41.1 (1997): 132-147.
This article examines the prospective value of critical modernism, and postmodernism models for contemporary public administration. These two models have been viewed by some as mutually exclusive solutions to the institutional pitfalls of modern public administration. Critical modernism uses critical reflection, discourse, and action as a means of repairing the shortcomings of modernism. Postmodernism seeks to paradoxically perpetuate the "fragmentation" and "uncoordination" of contemporary administrative practices. It is the belief of many postmodernists, including Lyotard and Foucault, that continued fragmentation and multiplicity promote creativity. Postmodernist's want to see a move away from mainstream management. They contend that concepts such as total quality management and management-by-objectives exacerbate a system that is already designed to "...promote efficiency and productivity as a tool for ideological and managerial dominance."
5) McSwite, O.C., "Jacques Lacan and the Theory of the Human Subject: How Psychologists Can Help Public Administration." American Behavioral Scientist. 41.1 (1997): 43-62.
McSwite concludes that the field of public administration has been hampered by its inability to create an original theory of operation. He believes that the philosophic assumptions of public administration are restricted by it's dependence on market theory assumption of humans. Instead of planting its paradamatic foot on firm democratic ground, it has jumped with both feet into the pool of economic theory as the primary means of establishing "administrative man." The purpose then of this article is to demonstrate how Jacques Lacan's theory of psychoanalysis can provide a democratically consistent ontological identity. Lucan's theory abandons the modernistic notion of administration as a means attaining rational goals, and frames administration in a postmodern paradigm. Here individuals forego their desires and instead fulfill one's obligation defined by their place in the symbolic system. The result of this paradmatic transcendence will create an administrator less concerned with institutional restrictions, and more concerned with their ability to serve and collaborate toward true democratic ends.